Subgroup of children seen at 7–9 years: measures at 7–9 years
| Subgroup seen at 7 years (Adelaide) n=109 | P values | Subgroup seen at 9 years (Auckland) n=99 | P values | |||
| Metformin n=58 | Insulin n=51 | Metformin n=45 | Insulin n=54 | |||
| Age (years) | 7.0±1.0 | 7.4±1.1 | 0.02 | 8.9±0.5 | 8.9±0.4 | 0.23 |
| Male/female (n) | 35/23 | 23/28 | 0.16 | 28/17 | 28/26 | 0.32 |
| Weight (kg) | 26.9±5.2 | 26.3±4.9 | 0.59 | 37.0±12.6 | 32.7±7.7 | 0.049 |
| Height (cm) | 124.5±5.2 | 124.5±5.0 | 0.99 | 137.5±7.4 | 135.4±6.6 | 0.13 |
| BMI (kg/m²) | 17.2±2.5 | 16.9±2.5 | 0.48 | 19.3±4.6 | 17.7±3.0 | 0.051 |
| Leg length (cm) | 55.8±7.7 | 57.5±3.1 | 0.13 | 63.6±4.2 | 63.9±4.1 | 0.70 |
| Head circumference (cm) | 52.2±1.2 | 51.9±1.5 | 0.24 | 53.6±2.2 | 53.1±1.8 | 0.23 |
| Chest circumference (cm) | 63.5±6.0 | 63.1±5.0 | 0.66 | 70.4±10.2 | 67.7±8.0 | 0.16 |
| Mid-upper arm circumference (cm) | 19.7±2.4 | 19.5±2.3 | 0.54 | 23.0±4.3 | 21.2±2.9 | 0.02 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 60.2±6.7 | 59.5±6.1 | 0.57 | 69.1±12.2 | 64.2±8.4 | 0.04 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 67.6±6.4 | 67.7±5.7 | 0.90 | 77.6±11.1 | 74.7±7.1 | 0.16 |
| Waist:height ratio | 0.48±0.05 | 0.48±0.04 | 0.54 | 0.51±0.08 | 0.47±0.05 | 0.02 |
| Triceps skinfold thickness (mm) | 11.4±4.3 | 11.4±4.0 | 0.997 | 19.5±9.0 | 16.2±6.7 | 0.05 |
| Subscapular skinfold thickness (mm) | 8.0±5.6 | 7.5±5.3 | 0.65 | 13.1±9.6 | 10.5±6.8 | 0.14 |
| Biceps skinfold thickness (mm) | 6.9±3.8 | 6.7±2.8 | 0.72 | 13.9±7.5 | 11.8±5.9 | 0.14 |
| DXA | n=32 | n=29 | n=45 | n=53 | ||
| Fat-free mass (g) | 19702±2564 | 19271±2532 | 0.51 | 24385±5894 | 22511±3689 | 0.07 |
| Total fat (g) | 7651±3906 | 7987±3339 | 0.72 | 12550±7214 | 10281±4550 | 0.07 |
| Abdominal fat (g) | 423±384 | 430±315 | 0.93 | 774±681 | 548±413 | 0.056 |
| Thigh fat (g) | 1252±618 | 1323±618 | 0.63 | 1983±1122 | 1655±710 | 0.10 |
| Arm fat (g) | 1079±492 | 1103±422 | 0.84 | 1568±801 | 1285±534 | 0.047 |
| Abdominal fat:thigh fat ratio | 0.30±0.11 | 0.30±0.10 | 0.99 | 0.34±0.13 | 0.30±0.09 | 0.15 |
| Total fat % | 26.8±7.6 | 28.5±6.8 | 0.37 | 32.0±8.5 | 30.3±6.6 | 0.28 |
| Abdominal fat % of abdominal mass | 21.3±11.8 | 22.4±10.5 | 0.71 | 29.7±14.4 | 26.6±10.5 | 0.24 |
| Bioimpedance | n=56 | n=51 | ||||
| Fat-free mass (kg) | 21.5±2.8 | 20.7±3.0 | 0.34 | 27.7±7.7 | 25.1±5.2 | 0.065 |
| Total fat % | 18.8±7.9 | 20.8±5.4 | 0.13 | 23.6±8.1 | 22.3±8.9 | 0.43 |
| MRI – abdomen | n=7 Age:10.0±0.14 years | n=5 Age:10.0±0.08 years | n=42 | n=50 | ||
| Abdominal fat volume (cm3) | 2720±1786 | 1843±724 | 0.27 | 4172±2964 | 3120±1898 | 0.051 |
| Abdominal fat % of abdominal volume | 27.6±11.2 | 23.5±9.5 | 0.50 | 36.0±14.4 | 32.2±10.9 | 0.16 |
| Abdominal subcutaneous fat volume (cm3) | 1807±1468 | 1092±618 | 0.28 | 3231±2412 | 2398±1566 | 0.059 |
| Abdominal subcutaneous fat % | 17.5±9.6 | 14.1±8.6 | 0.54 | 27.6±12.3 | 24.4±9.7 | 0.18 |
| Abdominal visceral fat volume (cm3) | 913±610 | 752±221 | 0.54 | 941±629 | 722±365 | 0.051 |
| Abdominal visceral fat % | 10.1±4.8 | 9.3±1.2 | 0.69 | 8.5±3.1 | 7.7±1.9 | 0.19 |
| VAT:SAT | 0.74±0.41 | 0.88±0.48 | 0.60 | 0.35±0.15 | 0.37±0.18 | 0.57 |
| Liver fat% (MRS) | – | – | 2.5 (1.1–6.1) | 1.8 (1.3–2.6) | 0.10 | |
| Venous blood | n=43 | n=42 | n=44 (n=40 for fasting results) | n=50 (n=42 for fasting results) | ||
| Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL) | 85±7 | 86±7 | 0.14 | 85±7.0 | 87±5.7 | 0.10 |
| Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/L) | 4.7±0.4 | 4.8±0.4 | 0.14 | 4.7±0.4 | 4.8±0.3 | 0.10 |
| HbA1c (%) | – | – | 5.3±0.3 | 5.3±0.3 | 0.84 | |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | – | – | 35±2.5 | 35±2.5 * | 0.84 | |
| Hemoglobin (mg/dL) | – | – | 134.6±5.4 | 133.7±7.8 | 0.50 | |
| Ferritin (µg/L) | – | – | 52 (40–70) | 40 (28–59) | 0.009 | |
| Fasting insulin (mIU/L) | – | – | 6.5 (4.6–12.4) | 8.6 (5.9–12.2) | 0.24 | |
| Insulin resistance | – | – | 1.0 (0.6–1.6) | 1.1 (0.8–1.6) | 0.31 | |
| Fasting triglycerides (mmol/L) | – | – | 0.59 (0.47–0.88) | 0.70 (0.55–0.82) | 0.31 | |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | – | – | 2.7±0.5 | 2.6±0.6 | 0.81 | |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | – | – | 1.6±0.4 | 1.6±0.3 | 0.42 | |
| AST (IU/L) | – | – | 36±10 | 33±5 | 0.10 | |
| ALT (IU/L) | – | – | 19±9 | 17±6 | 0.18 | |
| Leptin (ng/mL) | – | – | 1.5 (0.5–3.6) | 1.4 (0.5–2.7) | 0.69 | |
| Adiponectin (µg/mL) | – | – | 13.2 (5.2–33.5) | 14.0 (5.6–54.4) | 0.53 | |
| Maternal measures at 7–9 years assessment | ||||||
| Height (cm) | 161.6±6.6 | 161.4±6.7 | 0.90 | 162.9±7.2 | 161.3±7.7 | 0.29 |
| Weight (kg) | 82.9±19.2 | 82.3±20.4 | 0.87 | 85.7±23.7 | 79.7±20.0 | 0.18 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 31.8±6.5 | 31.5±7.2 | 0.85 | 32.0±7.5 | 30.4±6.3 | 0.27 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 94.1±13.8 | 93.4±18.1 | 0.81 | 101.9±17.0 | 100.0±15.8 | 0.59 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 113.6±15.7 | 116.0±17.2 | 0.44 | 112.4±0.8 | 111.5±14.1 | 0.77 |
| Waist:hip ratio | 0.83±0.06 | 0.80±0.10 | 0.12 | 0.91±0.07 | 0.90±0.07 | 0.43 |
| Bioimpedance | ||||||
| Fat-free mass (kg) | 49.7±7.0 | 48.9±7.4 | 0.57 | 52.1±10.7 | 48.9±8.9 | 0.11 |
| Total fat (%) | 38.6±8.0 | 38.7±6.6 | 0.96 | 37.7±6.9 | 37.3±6.8 | 0.82 |
| Social situation | ||||||
| Single adult in household | 6 (8.9) | 7 (14.3) | 0.58 | 5 (11.1) | 3 (5.6) | 0.46 |
| Benefit in household | 35 (62.5) | 31 (63.3) | 1.00 | 5 (11.1) | 6 (11.1) | 1.00 |
| Smokers in household | 17 (30.4) | 11 (22.4) | 0.49 | 10 (22.2) | 7 (13.0) | 0.29 |
| Maternal history of depression | 20 (35.7) | 9 (18.4) | 0.08 | 6 (13.3) | 7 (13.0) | 1.00 |
| Self-reported maternal diabetes | – | – | 19 (42.2) | 22 (40.7) | 1.00 | |
Data are expressed as mean±SD , median (IQR) or n (%).
*One child in insulin subgroupin Auckland group: HbA1c=43 mmol/mol on metformin.
ALT, alanine transaminase; AST, aspartate transaminase; BMI, body mass index; DXA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MRS, magnetic resonance spectroscopy; SAT, subcutaneous adipose tissue; VAT, visceral adipose tissue.