Normal weight | General overweight/obesity | P value | |||
Normal waist circumstance | Abdominal obesity | Normal waist circumstance | Abdominal obesity | ||
Subjects, n | 727 | 75 | 72 | 99 | |
Maternal characteristics | |||||
Age at delivery (years) | 31.0±3.45 | 31.2±3.35 | 30.9±3.80 | 31.1±4.23 | 0.93 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 22.9±3.23 | 22.5±3.24 | 24.8±3.33 | 24.2±3.42 | <0.001 |
Gestational weight gain (kg) | 16.4±5.78 | 16.5±5.81 | 18.3±6.82 | 18.1±6.72 | 0.005 |
Gestational age at delivery (weeks) | 39.1±1.51 | 39.1±1.57 | 38.7±1.34 | 38.9±1.53 | 0.13 |
Education (%) | 0.21 | ||||
<13 years | 21.0 | 21.3 | 25.0 | 29.3 | |
13–16 years | 71.5 | 62.7 | 72.2 | 66.7 | |
≥16 years | 7.4 | 16.0 | 2.8 | 4.0 | |
Smoking status (%) | 0.19 | ||||
Never | 96.3 | 97.3 | 91.7 | 92.9 | |
Past | 2.6 | 1.3 | 6.9 | 3.0 | |
Current | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 4.0 | |
Offspring characteristics | |||||
Boy (%) | 51.3 | 60.0 | 55.6 | 65.7 | 0.006 |
Age (years) | 3.11±1.05 | 2.48±0.70 | 3.47±1.27 | 3.00±0.96 | <0.001 |
Birth weight (g) | 3497±508 | 3649±558 | 3743±543 | 3638±527 | <0.001 |
Mode of infant feeding (%) | 0.59 | ||||
Exclusive breast feeding | 44.6 | 36 | 33.3 | 47.5 | |
Exclusive formula feeding | 41.5 | 50.7 | 45.8 | 41.4 | |
Mixed feeding | 13.9 | 13.3 | 20.8 | 11.1 | |
Outdoor activity (hours/day) | 1.62±0.85 | 1.80±0.88 | 1.66±0.84 | 1.69±0.96 | 0.34 |
Screen time (hours/day) | 1.23±0.98 | 1.32±1.12 | 1.65±1.32 | 1.51±1.07 | 0.001 |
Sleeping time (%) | 0.13 | ||||
≤8 hours/day | 1.7 | 2.7 | 4.2 | 2.0 | |
9–10 hours/day | 46.6 | 29.3 | 62.5 | 47.5 | |
≥11 hours/day | 51.7 | 68.0 | 33.3 | 50.5 | |
Dietary intake | |||||
Energy (kcal/day) | 883±231 | 948±199 | 946±244 | 1037±288 | <0.001 |
Protein (% of energy) | 16.2±2.77 | 16.8±3.09 | 15.6±2.44 | 17.0±3.14 | 0.004 |
Fat (% of energy) | 32.4±7.24 | 33.2±7.15 | 31.1±6.46 | 31.0±7.76 | 0.11 |
Carbohydrate (%) | 52.9±7.58 | 51.4±7.71 | 54.7±7.16 | 53.5±8.13 | 0.06 |
Fiber (g/1000 kcal) | 3.94±1.02 | 3.64±1.19 | 3.85±0.92 | 3.96±1.03 | 0.10 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 15.2±0.93 | 15.8±0.81 | 17.7±0.74 | 19.0±2.08 | <0.001 |
BMI for age Z-score | −0.26±0.73 | 0.15±0.63 | 1.52±0.41 | 2.30±1.15 | <0.001 |
Waist circumstance (cm) | 49.5±3.11 | 55.6±3.01 | 53.8±4.02 | 59.2±5.62 | <0.001 |
Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 4.35±0.36 | 4.33±0.37 | 4.47±0.36 | 4.44±0.32 | 0.007 |
Fasting insulin (mIU/L) | 2.44±1.64 | 2.26±1.94 | 3.29±1.74 | 4.23±3.64 | <0.001 |
Overweight or obesity was defined as a body mass index ≥85th percentile according to the WHO age and gender-specific growth reference. Abdominal obesity was defined as a waist circumstance ≥90th percentile according to anthropometric reference data for children and adults in the USA, 2007–2010.
BMI, body mass index.