Characteristics of women with and without GDM
| Non-GDM | GDM | P value | |
| Number of participants | 705 | 1263 | |
| Age at delivery (years) | 29.7±2.83 | 30.1±3.50 | 0.008 |
| Age at baseline (years) | 35.4±3.23 | 32.4±3.52 | <0.001 |
| Duration after delivery (years) | 5.74±1.19 | 2.29±0.88 | <0.001 |
| Prepregnancy weight (kg) | 55.8±8.21 | 59.4±9.14 | <0.001 |
| Weight gain during pregnancy (kg) | 18.3±6.67 | 16.8±5.99 | <0.001 |
| Prepregnancy BMI (km/m2) | 21.4±2.97 | 23.1±3.32 | <0.001 |
| Postpartum BMI (kg/m2) | 22.9±3.68 | 24.2±3.93 | <0.001 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 75.8±8.26 | 80.6±9.47 | <0.001 |
| Body fat (%) | 30.8±5.84 | 33.1±5.82 | <0.001 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 5.23±0.52 | 5.38±0.97 | <0.001 |
| 2-hour glucose (mmol/L) | 6.14±1.41 | 7.08±2.49 | <0.001 |
| Serum fasting insulin | 8.86 (6.27–11.6) | 6.91 (4.76–10.2) | <0.001 |
| HOMA-IR | 2.03 (1.44–2.79) | 1.61 (1.08–2.51) | <0.001 |
| HOMA-%β | 104 (74.7–146) | 81.8 (54.3–123) | <0.001 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 35±3 | 38±8 | <0.001 |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.3±0.2 | 5.6±0.7 | <0.001 |
| Education (%) | <0.001 | ||
| <13 years | 10.4 | 22.5 | |
| 13–16 years | 75.5 | 70.1 | |
| ≥16 years | 14.2 | 7.4 | |
| Income (%) | <0.001 | ||
| ¥<5000/month | 5.4 | 27.5 | |
| ¥5000–8000/month | 15.5 | 36.9 | |
| ¥≥8000 yuan/month | 79.1 | 35.6 | |
| Family history of diabetes (%) | 27.1 | 35.7 | <0.001 |
| Current smoking (%) | 4.0 | 2.0 | 0.355 |
| Passive smoking (%) | 55.2 | 53.8 | 0.572 |
| Current alcohol drinker (%) | 32.1 | 21.8 | <0.001 |
| Leisure-time physical activity (%) | <0.001 | ||
| 0 min/day | 61.7 | 78.8 | |
| 1–29 min/day | 33.8 | 19.1 | |
| ≥30 min/day | 4.5 | 2.1 | |
| Lactation intensity (%) | |||
| Exclusive formula | 13.6 | 14.5 | |
| Mixed feeding | 44.4 | 42.6 | |
| Exclusive feeding | 42.0 | 42.9 | |
| Lactation duration (months) | 9.88±7.06 | 8.70±6.23 | <0.01 |
| Sleeping time (hours/day) | 7.48±0.95 | 7.81±1.06 | <0.01 |
| Energy consumption (kcal/day)* | 1627±381 | 1676±436 | 0.01 |
| Fiber (g/day) | 11.6±4.42 | 12.2±4.75 | 0.01 |
| Fat, % of energy | 31.1±5.65 | 33.5±6.34 | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrate, % of energy | 52.3±6.81 | 49.5±7.30 | <0.001 |
| Protein, % of energy | 16.6±2.62 | 17.0±2.78 | 0.006 |
| Sweetened beverage drink (%) | 77.9 | 75.5 | 0.223 |
*Dietary intakes were assessed by 3-day 24-hour food records.
BMI, body mass index; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HOMA-%β, homeostatic model assessment of β-cell secretory function; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance.