GDM (n=33) | Control (n=29) | Model 2 p value | Model 3 p value | |
Total calorie (kcal/day)‡ | 1566±540 | 1954±582 | 0.01 | 0.0382 |
Total fat (g/day) | 63.0±30.3 | 75.6±28.0 | 0.13 | 0.82 |
Total carbohydrate (g/day) | 181.0±16.4 | 236.3±16.8 | 0.001 | 0.23 |
Saturated fat (g/day) | 21.0±11.2 | 25.4±10.6 | 0.17 | 0.67 |
Monounsaturated fat (g/day) | 21.8±10.4 | 26.3±10.3 | 0.11 | 0.83 |
Polyunsaturated fat (g/day) | 14.2±7.5 | 17.4±6.9 | 0.11 | 0.26 |
Linoleic acid (g/day) | 12.4±6.8 | 14.9±6.2 | 0.16 | 0.39 |
Linolenic acid (g/day) | 1.3±0.6 | 1.7±0.7 | 0.029 | 0.13 |
EPA (mg/day) | 39.3±50.2 | 90.8±162.0 | 0.055 | 0.26 |
DHA (mg/day) | 118.6±146.3 | 202.3±349.6 | 0.15 | 0.47 |
Glycemic load | 95.8±39.1 | 136.1±42.1 | <0.001 | 0.06 |
Vitamin D (µg/day) | 4.9±2.9 | 6.1±5.0 | 0.18 | 0.84 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 6.6±2.6 | 8.3±3.5 | 0.018 | 0.41 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 54.3±29.9 | 94.0±52.8 | <0.001 | 0.046 |
HEI† | 61.0±15.4 | 56.4±11.9 | 0.38 | |
Total fruits score† | 2.5±1.7 | 2.7±1.8 | 0.47 | |
Whole fruits score† | 2.1±1.7 | 1.9±1.7 | 0.74 | |
Total vegetables score† | 4.5±1.1 | 4.6±0.7 | 0.7 | |
Greens and beans score† | 3.3±2.3 | 3.6±1.6 | 0.76 | |
Whole grain score† | 5.8±3.6 | 4.0±3.3 | 0.093 | |
Dairy score† | 5.3±3.0 | 4.7±2.1 | 0.26 | |
Total protein score† | 5.0±0.2 | 4.8±0.4 | 0.23 | |
Seafood and plant proteins score† | 3.2±2.0 | 3.0±2.1 | 0.83 | |
Fatty acids score† | 4.7±2.9 | 4.0±2.7 | 0.59 | |
Refined grains score† | 7.3±3.1 | 6.4±3.2 | 0.59 | |
Sodium score† | 2.4±3.0 | 2.9±2.3 | 0.4 | |
Added sugars score† | 9.3±1.6 | 7.8±1.9 | 0.001 | |
Saturated fats score† | 5.5±3.5 | 5.9±2.9 | 0.49 |
*Analyzed with analysis of covariance; model 2 adjusted for gestational week of blood draw, maternal age, sex of neonate, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education level, and parity; model 3 adjusted for covariates in model 2 and prepregnancy BMI and total energy intake; values are mean±SD.
†These scores are based on the scoring standards of Healthy Eating Index (HEI)−2015. Since the scores are based on per 1000 kcal intake, total energy intake was not adjusted in statistical analysis.
‡Model 3 of this dependent variable does not include ‘energy’ as a covariate.
DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.