Trial characteristics; values are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated
| Study | Location | Duration | Brief intervention description | Comparator | GDM criteria | Ethnicity | Sample size | Mean age | Mean BMI, kg/m2 | Mean weight, kg | Timepoint of weight/BMI assessment (timepoint used in our analysis if included and multiple reported) | Method of assessment | |||
| IG | CG | IG | CG | IG | CG | ||||||||||
| Digital | |||||||||||||||
| Borgen et al36 | Norway | >3 months (prior to 33 weeks gestation to 3 months post partum) | Smartphone application, wearable device | Usual care: standard clinic-based education on healthy diet, physical activity and how to use glucose monitors | 2 hours OGTT ≥9 mmol/ L | Majority white | 238 | –* | –* | –* | –* | – | – | N/A | N/A |
| Carolan-Olah32 | Australia | 20–24 weeks | Web program plus standard education clinic-based education in person (group and one-to-one) | Usual care: standard clinic-based education | WHO 2013 | Mixed | 116 | 31.7† | 29.6 | 30.8 | – | – | 12 weeks post partum | Self-report and medical records | |
| Cheung et al28 | Australia | 36–38 weeks | SMS, wearable device | Usual care: booklet on ‘life after gestational diabetes’ | 1998 Australian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society | Majority Asian | 60 | 34 (4.0) | 34 (4.0) | 28.7 (7.6) | 27.8 (4.2) | – | – | 36–38 weeks post partum | Self-report |
| Holmes et al33 | Northern Ireland | 6 months | SMS, telephone calls, wearable device, printed materials, in person (group) | Usual care: educational DVD about symptoms/causes and consequences of GDM and managing diet/weight | IADPSG/WHO 2013 | Majority white | 60 | 34.2 (4.3) | 33.2 (5.3) | 34.1 (6.3) | 33.6 (5.4) | 89.6 (16.8) | 90.2 (16.4) | 6 months post partum | Not reported |
| Kim et al29 | USA | 13 weeks | SMS, web platform, emails, wearable device | Usual care: letter about diabetes risk reduction and screening postdelivery | – | Majority non-Hispanic white | 49 | – | – | 29.8 (6.8) | 30.5 (7.5) | 80.8 (18.8) | 82.1 (20.1) | 13 weeks from baseline | Clinical |
| McManus et al31 | Canada | 12 months | Web platform, emails (automated), in person (one-to-one and group) | Usual care: handout from Canadian Diabetes Association about healthy postpartum living | – | Majority Caucasian | 178 | 34.3 (4.4) | 33.9 (5.0) | 35.5 (6.9) | 34.9 (7.7) | 94.6 (21.8) | 91.2 (22.1) | 3, 6, 12 and 24 months from baseline (3 months) | Clinical |
| Nicklas23 | USA | 12 months | Web platform, wearable device, emails, printed materials, telephone | Usual care: handout from Diabetes Education Program | Carpenter-Coustan (3 hours OGTT); diagnosis on record | Majority white | 75 | 33.6 (4.8) | 33.3 (5.8) | 31.2 (5.8) | 31.6 (5.5) | 82.9 (17.3) | 84.2 (19) | 6 and 12 months from baseline (6 months) | Clinical |
| Peacock et al30 | Australia | 3 months | Web platform, emails, in person (group) | Waiting list control | Diagnosed (no reported criteria) | Majority Caucasian | 31 | 36† (4.5) | 30.3†‡ (8.2) | 85.7† (17.5) | 3 months from baseline | Self-report at baseline, clinical at follow-up | |||
| Telemedicine | |||||||||||||||
| Ferrara, et al27 | USA | 12 months | Telephone, printed materials, in person | Usual care: printed educational materials, 2 newsletters post partum | ADA | Majority Asian and non-Hispanic white | 197 | –* | –* | –* | –* | –* | –* | 6 weeks, 7 and 12 months post partum | Clinical |
| Ferrara, et al24 | USA | 12 months | Telephone, in person, printed materials | Usual care: telephone-based education, letter sent 6 weeks post partum about healthy lifestyle and diabetes screening, sent materials about lifestyle prevention if results indicate prediabetes | Carpenter-Coustan | Majority Asian and non-Hispanic white | 2480 | –* | –* | –* | –* | –* | –* | 6 weeks, 6 and 12 months post partum | Clinical |
| Hedderson35 | – | 12 months | Telephone, printed materials | Usual care (no further details) | – | – | 352 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 and 24 months post partum | Not reported |
| Jelsma, et al34 | – | 6 months | Telephone, SMS, wearable device, printed materials, in person (one-to-one) | Usual care (no contact or intervention delivered) | 1998 Australian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society | Mixed | 59 | 35.7 (4.8) | 35.1 (4.2) | – | – | – | – | N/A | N/A |
| McIntyre, et al25 | Australia | 3 months | Telephone, in person (one-to-one) | Usual care: printed materials briefly outlining the importance of diet and exercise in preventing future diabetes | – | – | 28 | 34.6 (4.4) | 31.5 (3.9) | 30.6 (8.5) | 30.3 (7.4) | 79.3 (20.7) | 80.3 (17.4) | 12 weeks from baseline | Clinical |
| Reinhardt, et al26 | Australia | 6 months | Telephone, printed materials | Usual care (no further details) | 1998 Australian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society | – | 38 | 32.9 (4.9) | 32.2 (5.1) | 29.2 (6.2) | 28.5 (4.9) | 75.3 (17.7) | 75.9 (13.5) | 6 months from baseline | Clinical at baseline, self-report at follow-up |
*Stratified data only.
†Combined mean.
‡Median and IQR.
ADA, American Diabetes Association; BMI, body mass index; CG, control group; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; GDM, gestational diabetes; IADPSG, International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups; IG, intervention group; N/A, not applicable; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test.;