FFQ reported weekly intake of foods at 11th–14th week of pregnancy*
| FFQ, frequency per week† | Non-GDM (n=742) | GDM (n=123) | P value‡ |
| Median (10th–90th percentile) | |||
| Fish, fatty | 0.5 (0.1–1.0) | 0.1 (0.1–1.0) | <0.01 |
| Fish, lean | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 0.39 |
| Omega-3 supplements | 1.0 (0.3–14.1) | 0.3 (0.3–10.9) | 0.09 |
| Red meat | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 0.94 |
| Poultry | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 1.0 (0.1–2.5) | 0.41 |
| Processed meat | 0.5 (0.1–2.5) | 0.5 (0.1–1.3) | 0.39 |
| Whole milk | 0.1 (0.1–5.0) | 0.1 (0.1–7.0) | 0.68 |
| Low fat milk | 1.0 (0.2–7.1) | 0.6 (0.2–14.1) | 0.55 |
| Skimmed milk | 0.2 (0.2–1.7) | 0.2 (0.2–1.1) | 0.02 |
| Sour dairy | 2.5 (0.1–7.0) | 2.5 (0.1–7.0) | 0.18 |
| Cheese | 5.0 (1.0–14.0) | 5.0 (1.0–14.0) | 0.11 |
| Butter on bread | 5.0 (0.5–14.0) | 5.0 (0.3–7.0) | 0.42 |
| Butter for cooking | 1.0 (0.1–5.0) | 2.5 (0.1–5.4) | 0.76 |
| Vegetable oil for cooking | 5.0 (1.0–7.0) | 2.5 (0.3–7.0) | 0.07 |
| French fries and chips | 0.5 (0.3–2.5) | 0.5 (0.1–2.5) | 0.53 |
| Cakes, sweets, ice cream and cookies | 3.5 (1.0–8.0) | 3.0 (0.6–7.5) | 0.11 |
| Soft drinks | 1.5 (0.2–7.1) | 2.6 (0.2–10.8) | 0.44 |
| Fruit juice | 1.0 (0.1–7.0) | 0.5 (0.1–7.0) | 0.01 |
| Fruits and vegetables | 14.0 (5.0–39.0) | 14.0 (3.4–39.0) | 0.12 |
| Beans, nuts and seeds | 0.5 (0.1–5.0) | 0.5 (0.1–2.5) | 0.01 |
| Wholegrains | 6.0 (1.2–15.0) | 4.0 (0.5–19.2) | <0.01 |
| White bread | 2.5 (0.1–7.0) | 2.5 (0.1–7.0) | 0.97 |
| Coffee | 0.5 (0.10–14.0) | 0.1 (0.1–7.0) | 0.01 |
*Data are presented as medians and percentiles (10th–90th).
†FFQ information on intake is missing for six participants.
‡Differences between non-GDM and GDM using the Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples. Bold text indicates a statistically significant difference with a p-value ≤ 0.05.
FFQ, Food Frequency Questionnaire; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.