Tributyltin chloride leads to adiposity and impairs metabolic functions in the rat liver and pancreas
Graphical abstract
Diagram of the tissue–tissue cross-talk in tributyltin chloride (TBT) and metabolic homeostasis. TBT derived from exogenous sources stimulates (green line) or inhibits (red line) transcription from metabolic genes (tissue-specific). TBT stimulates PPARγ and inhibits ERα protein expression followed with hepatic inflammation and lipid storage. Interestingly, TBT stimulates both PPARγ and ERα protein expression in adipose tissue associated with inflammation and adiposity. Additionally, liver and adipose tissue-derived impairments modulated glucose tolerance (GTT) and insulin sensivity (IST) tests.
Introduction
Organotin chemicals (OTs) are a diverse class of widely distributed xenobiotics (Fent, 1996, Graceli et al., 2013). These organometallic pollutants are used as biocides in antifouling paints (Barnes and Stoner, 1959, Grün and Blumberg, 2006), although use for this purpose has been restricted in recent years, on the basis of their various toxic effects (IMO, 2001, Oberdõrster and McClellan-Green, 2002, Graceli et al., 2013). OTs are markedly toxic to oysters and other non-target molluscs and are considered to be endocrine-active environmental chemicals. For instance, the tributyltin chloride (TBT) is inducers of imposex, the imposition of male sex characteristics on female snails (Fent, 1996, Oberdõrster and McClellan-Green, 2002). The mechanism by which TBT cause imposex is unclear, but TBT-induced inhibition of an aromatase, a cytochrome-P450 that converts testosterone into estrogen, seems to be involved (Oberdõrster and McClellan-Green, 2002).
Several investigations have shown that exposure to OTs cause hepatic, neural, immune and reproductive toxicity (Wiebkin et al., 1982, Kletzien et al., 1992, Tafuri, 1996, Grote et al., 2006, Grondin et al., 2007) in various mammalian experimental models by accumulation of TBT and their metabolites, as dibutyltin (DBT) and inorganic tin (iSn) (Krajnc et al., 1984, Dorneles et al., 2008). The iSn is poorly absorbed by the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) and is associated with OTs metabolization into iSn by mammals (Appel, 2004). It has been suggested that an important fraction of iSn may be present in the bodies of mammals, as a result of OT contamination, which strengthens the importance of the total tin determination for evaluating the exposure of mammalian to OTs (Appel, 2004, Dorneles et al., 2008).
Among other effects, reports on their toxicity indicate that TBT promote adipogenesis in vivo, in vitro and in utero (Grün et al., 2006, Kirchner et al., 2010, Penza et al., 2011). Furthermore, TBT alters the stem cell compartment by sensitising multipotent stromal stem cells to differentiate into adipocytes, similar to the actions of the obesogen class of environmental chemicals (Grün and Blumberg, 2006, Kirchner et al., 2010).
Obesogens can be functionally defined as chemicals that inappropriately alter lipid homeostasis and fat storage, metabolic set points, energy balance, or the regulation of appetite and satiety to promote fat accumulation and obesity (Grün et al., 2006, Grün and Blumberg, 2007). The obesity and metabolic disorders related in the developed world are not associated only to overeating or inactivity, although these are clear factors (Newbold et al., 2009). Previous studies supported that a role of environmental factors in the development of obesity, such as environmental obesogens (Grün et al., 2006, Newbold et al., 2009). The rise in obesity coincides with an exponential increase in the use of industrial chemicals over the last 40 years. Numerous xenobiotics have attracted attention for their potential contribution to the increased obesity rate (Heindel and vom Saal, 2009, de Cock and van de Bor, 2014).
The white adipose tissue (WAT) is the principal modulator of metabolic function in mammals. WAT plays a pivotal role in regulating the cascade of paracrine events necessary for energetic metabolism, immune process and reproductive function (Guerre-Millo, 2002, Kershaw and Flier, 2004, Badman and Flier, 2005, MacLaren et al., 2008, Monget et al., 2008). In females, the granulosa cells in ovary secrete estrogen (E2), which acts a important modulation in the typical distribution of body fat and WAT metabolism, mediated by two nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs), ER alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ) (Danilovich et al., 2000). The enlarged fat mass deposition that occurs in women as they enter menopause and the growth of fat mass reported in various rodent models of E2 deficiency represent the clearest physiological examples of the anti-adipogenic action of E2 (Danilovich et al., 2000, Heine et al., 2000). E2 modulates WAT increasing lipolysis through control of the expression of genes that regulate lipogenesis, adipocyte differentiation and metabolism (Cooke and Naaz, 2004, Pallottini et al., 2008).
Despite these discoveries of TBT and E2 actions in WAT, few studies have explored the effect of TBT signaling directly in ERs on mammalian metabolic function (Grün and Blumberg, 2006, Penza et al., 2011). Consequently, herein, the aim of this study was to determine the association of TBT-induced adverse effects on the parametrial and retroperitoneal WAT (in vivo), 3T3-L1 cells (in vitro) and the metabolic functions of the liver and pancreas associated with the impairment of the E2 levels in female rats.
Section snippets
Experimental animals and treatments
Adult female Wistar rats weighing approximately 230 g (12 week old) were housed in polypropylene cages under controlled temperature and humidity conditions with a 12-h light/dark cycle and free access to water and food. The rats were divided into two groups: (1) The tributyltin chloride group (TBT, n = 10), treated daily with tributyltin chloride (0.1 μg/kg/day of TBT diluted in vehicle consisting of 0.4% ethanol; Sigma, St. Louis, MO) for 15 day by oral administration (Lang Podratz et al., 2012);
Effect of TBT on body weight and total body fat
To determine the importance of TBT exposure in the regulation of WAT homeostasis, we monitored the body weights of the TBT-treated rats for 15 days and found that there was a significant increase by the 15th day of treatment (n = 10, p ≤ 0.05, Fig. 1A). Consistent with the growth curves, the TBT group had increased visceral adiposity as reflected by increases in the weights (fat mass/body weight) of both the parametrial and retroperitoneal fat pads (n = 10, p ≤ 0.05, Fig. 1B). The food intake and the
Discussion
In the present study, we showed that TBT was able to induce changes in the morphophysiology of female rat WAT, as well as pancreas and liver tissues. These effects were related to changes in adiposity and estrogen levels. The WAT remodelling included increases in the adipocyte size, decreases in the adipocyte number and changes in the numbers of mast cells, along with modulation of the protein expression of ERα and PPARγ in the WAT. Additionally, the exposure to TBT increased the quantity of
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this work.
Acknowledgments
This research supported by Ciências Sem Fronteiras-CAPES (#18196-12-8), FAPES (#45446121/2009-002) and UFES (#PIVIC 2010-11).
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